1(i) Write a brief note about the health status of the tribals in India.
The health status of the tribal communities in India is a multifaceted issue that is deeply influenced by the interaction between their socio-cultural practices, genetic characteristics, and the environmental conditions in which they live. In general, the overall health profile of the scheduled tribes is very poor and significantly inferior to the national average. This precarious health condition cannot be studied in isolation, as it is intimately linked with widespread poverty, illiteracy, malnutrition, lack of safe drinking water, and unsanitary living conditions. Furthermore, tribal habitations are often located in remote and inaccessible geographical areas (like forests, hills, and deserts) where the modern health care delivery system is either virtually non-existent or highly ineffective.
Tribals suffer from the same general diseases as the rest of the rural and underprivileged populations, but with a marked preponderance of infective and communicable diseases over degenerative ones. Common ailments include malaria, gastrointestinal disorders like diarrhea and dysentery, respiratory infections, and parasitic worm infestations. In certain endemic pockets across states like Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, and Assam, diseases such as goitre, yaws, and guinea-worm take a heavy toll. Additionally, a large number of tribals suffer from diseases transmitted through contact with non-tribals, such as tuberculosis, leprosy, and sexually transmitted diseases (STDs).
Nutritional deficiency is another critical dimension of tribal health. The tribal diet is often grossly deficient in animal protein, calcium, iron, riboflavin, and essential vitamins like Vitamin A and C. Consequently, there is a high prevalence of protein-energy malnutrition, anemia, and micronutrient deficiencies, particularly among vulnerable groups like preschool children, adolescent girls, and pregnant or lactating mothers. High infant and maternal mortality rates are widespread, exacerbated by the lack of proper maternal and child health services and the persistence of crude birth practices where deliveries are conducted at home without sanitary precautions. Due to these compounding factors, the average life expectancy of tribals is significantly lower than the national average. Furthermore, specific tribal groups exhibit high frequencies of genetic abnormalities and disorders, most notably sickle cell anemia and G-6-PD red cell enzyme deficiency.
The tribal concept of health and their health-seeking behavior also heavily dictate their health status. Many tribal groups strongly believe in the natural theory of diseases, assuming that illness occurs when a human falls out of harmony with nature or offends malevolent spirits and deities. Consequently, their initial response to sickness is to seek the help of traditional medicine men, diviners, and sorcerers (such as the Gunia, Ojha, or Pujari) to perform rituals and animal sacrifices to appease these spirits. Among many tribes, ailments like mild fever, prolonged cough, weakness, or scabies are not even considered serious diseases. While they possess valuable traditional herbal knowledge, their distrust of modern medicine is often fueled by the inadequate nature of government facilities and a lack of respect from medical staff toward their indigenous culture.
1(ii) What do you understand about the Draft National Tribal Policy? Comment.
The Draft National Tribal Policy (2006) was formulated by the Government of India as a comprehensive framework to address the persistent and unique challenges faced by the Scheduled Tribes. The policy was initiated to combat critical issues such as low literacy levels, widespread poverty, economic constraints, poor infrastructure, the diminishing control over natural resource bases, persistent threats of eviction from their habitats, and their overarching exclusion from the mainstream economy. The primary objective is to place the Scheduled Tribes on a progressive and constructive path, empowering them to become active partners in nation-building while being guided by the Constitutional provisions, the PESA Act, and the Nehruvian Panchsheel.
The policy acknowledges that the Human Development Indicators (HDI) of the tribal population—covering education, health, employment, and income—are vastly lower than the national average. To address educational backwardness, the policy seeks to significantly increase the literacy rate and arrest the high drop-out rate, particularly among tribal girls. It proposes incentives such as scholarships, free books, stationery, reimbursement of examination fees, free bus travel, and mid-day meals. It emphasizes the importance of teaching in the mother tongue, preserving tribal languages, and establishing Eklavya Model Residential Schools to improve accessibility.
In the realm of health, the policy aims to eradicate epidemics and disease vulnerability caused by inaccessible health facilities, food insecurity, and poor hygiene. It advocates for the establishment of Primary Health Centres (PHCs) in most tribal regions, the provision of safe drinking water, and the integration of modern health care systems with traditional Indian and tribal medicinal systems.
One of the most critical comments on the policy is its stance on the displacement and exploitation of tribal people. The policy strictly stipulates that the displacement of tribal populations due to dams, mining, and industries must be kept to an absolute minimum. It dictates that displacement should only occur after all non-displacement alternatives are exhausted, and guarantees a better standard of living for those who are displaced. To combat economic vulnerability stemming from land alienation, the policy ensures the formulation of strict anti-alienation land laws, amendments to the Indian Registration Act, and the establishment of fast-track courts in Scheduled Areas to resolve land litigation.
Furthermore, the Draft National Tribal Policy seeks to protect the subsistence economy of the tribals by rationalizing land tenure systems related to shifting cultivation. It promotes livelihood standards through vocational training, Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs), agro-forest-based activities, and the marketing of Minor Forest Produces (MFPs), which is crucial for arresting forced migration. It also ensures special focus on Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs), aiming to protect both isolated heritage groups and those on the fringes, preserving their eco-systems and traditional skills. Ultimately, the policy is a robust blueprint intended to facilitate social, economic, and political empowerment while reducing absolute reliance on the government by encouraging NGO participation.
2(i) Give your arguments for using the term tribe as Indigenous people.
The argument for categorizing Indian tribes as "Indigenous people" is rooted in their historical experiences, cultural identity, and vulnerability to exploitation. Etymologically, the term indigenous denotes native populations whose ancestors were original inhabitants of a land before it was colonized or settled by others. In the Indian context, tribals frequently refer to themselves as Adivasis, a term that literally translates to 'original settlers' or indigenous people.
A primary argument stems from their shared history of subjugation. Like indigenous populations globally, the tribal communities in India have suffered centuries of marginalization, dispossession, and discrimination. They have been the victims of colonization, experiencing a severe loss of control over their customary territorial resources, cultural annihilation, and political powerlessness. The ILO Convention 107 (1957) explicitly classified these populations as indigenous, recognizing that their social and economic conditions are less advanced and that they live more in conformity with their own traditional customs than with the dominant national institutions.
Furthermore, indigenous status is characterized by a strong link to ancestral territories, distinct languages and beliefs, and a non-dominant position in society. Indian tribes fit this operational definition perfectly, as they remained largely outside the politico-administrative structures of the larger caste-based society for centuries. By claiming "indigenous" status, these tribes actively seek international and national recognition of their collective rights to land, natural resources, and livelihood strategies within state structures that have systematically discriminated against them. Prominent leaders, like Ram Dayal Munda, have also strongly argued at UN forums that Scheduled Tribes and indigenous people are conceptually synonymous in the Indian context.
2(ii) In your own words present the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous people.
The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People (UNDRIP) is a landmark international framework adopted by the UN General Assembly on September 13, 2007. Born out of the necessity to address a massive protection gap in international human rights law, the Declaration serves as a tool for peace, justice, and mutual respect, outlining the fundamental rights of indigenous populations globally.
The core philosophy of the Declaration affirms that indigenous people are entirely free and equal in dignity and rights, and should be completely free from any form of discrimination. It vigorously promotes their right to self-determination, ensuring they have the autonomy to pursue their own economic, social, and cultural development according to their aspirations.
Crucially, the Declaration places immense emphasis on the profound connection indigenous people have with their ancestral lands. It recognizes and protects their inherent rights to own, control, and manage their traditional lands, territories, and natural resources. It guarantees protection against forced displacement, assimilation, or integration into dominant cultures. The framework further mandates that indigenous people have the right to maintain their distinct ethnic identities, revitalize their historical sites and languages, and establish their own educational and media systems. Additionally, it safeguards their traditional knowledge, medical practices, and biodiversity conservation methods. Ultimately, the UNDRIP binds States to actively protect these rights, requiring them to consult indigenous people on developmental projects and assist them financially and technically.
2(iii) What according to you are the educational problems of Scheduled Tribes? Explain.
The educational development of Scheduled Tribes (STs) in India is fraught with complex, multifaceted problems, leaving them at the lowest rung of the educational ladder. Historically debarred from formal learning, their low educational achievement is deeply tied to their extreme poverty and socio-economic isolation.
One of the most severe problems is the economic burden education places on a tribal family. Due to their subsistence economy, sending a child to school entails a direct loss of labor for household and agricultural activities. Consequently, the scheduling of school timings frequently clashes with the economic work schedule of the family, leading to massive drop-out rates as children are forced to help their parents to survive.
Another critical barrier is the language of instruction. The formal education system predominantly utilizes the dominant regional language, which is alien to tribal children. Having to learn to listen, speak, read, and write in a foreign language—rather than their mother tongue—creates severe cognitive and communicative hurdles, alienating the child and leading to low achievement levels and high attrition rates in the early years.
Furthermore, there is a fundamental cultural disconnect between the tribal environment and the modern educational curriculum. The current education system is heavily oriented toward an urban, middle-class culture. Tribal children find no relevance or continuity between what they experience in their socio-cultural socialization and what is taught in schools, causing them to become disinterested and drop out. Lastly, the lack of accessible infrastructure, chronic teacher absenteeism in remote areas, and the State's historical apathy toward aggressively promoting tribal literacy compound these educational deficiencies.
3(i) Write a short note about Positive Discrimination
Positive discrimination, widely known as the reservation policy or affirmative action in India, is a mechanism aimed at minimizing historical discrimination and deprivation. It is designed to uplift and empower socially and educationally backward classes, particularly the Scheduled Tribes (STs) and Scheduled Castes (SCs). The Indian Constitution guarantees three primary forms of positive discrimination: reservation of seats in educational institutions (Article 15(4)), reservation in government services and public employment (Article 16(4)), and political reservations in the Parliament and State Legislative Assemblies (Articles 330 and 332). By providing a guaranteed minimum presence in these spheres proportionate to their population, positive discrimination acts as the main means of social, economic, and political empowerment for the weaker sections.
3(ii) What are the features of Common Property Resources in Tribal Areas?
Common Property Resources (CPRs) are natural economic resources or facilities that are communally and collectively owned by an identifiable group or village. In tribal areas, the most vital features of CPRs are forests and land, along with water bodies and pastures. The community holds de jure ownership, and individual members are granted co-equal usufruct (use) rights to these resources. CPRs are crucial for the subsistence and traditional economy of tribals, providing food, fuel, fodder, timber, green manure, and medicinal herbs. The use of these resources is strictly regulated by the traditional customs, conventions, and informal institutions of the tribal group, reflecting a collective worldview where the tribal community shares a real stake in maintaining ecological balance and securing their resource base.
3(iii) What is the importance of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan among the tribals?
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) is a crucial government initiative aimed at universalizing elementary education for children aged 6 to 14, with a specific goal to bridge social, regional, and gender gaps. For tribal communities, SSA is vital because it specifically targets their unique educational challenges. It ensures the establishment of schools and alternative education centers directly in remote tribal habitations to capture drop-outs and non-enrolled children. Importantly, SSA emphasizes providing textbooks in the tribal mother tongue, adapting the curriculum to be locally relevant, and deploying community teachers. It also fosters community ownership by involving ST leaders in school management and adjusting school calendars to align with local tribal festivals.
3(iv) How is the policy of integration different from the policy of assimilation?
The policy of assimilation advocates for the complete absorption and merger of tribal societies into the larger, dominant society (often framed as the Hindu fold), treating tribals simply as backward populations that must shed their unique customs. It is criticized as an aggressive approach that forces involuntary subservience and leads to cultural loss. Conversely, the policy of integration focuses on a respectful merger with the mainstream while actively preserving and protecting the distinct tribal identity, arts, and culture. Rooted in Nehru's "Panchsheel," integration encourages tribals to develop along the lines of their own genius without external imposition, securing them an equal share of power as citizens while respecting tribal pluralism.
3(v) Define tribes in your own words.
A tribe is a distinct, localized social group whose members live in a common territory, speak a shared native dialect, and possess a uniform social and political organization. Culturally homogeneous, they often trace their descent from a common ancestor and practice unique religious beliefs fundamentally tied to nature. While the Indian Constitution does not define them specifically, they are generally characterized by primitive traits, a distinct and egalitarian culture, geographical isolation, socioeconomic backwardness, and a general shyness of contact with the wider mainstream community. Tribes operate primarily on strong kinship bonds and customary laws, living in close proximity to, and reliance on, their surrounding natural environment.
3(vi). Write a brief note on ‘Tribal Empowerment’
Tribal empowerment is a dynamic, multidimensional, and democratic process that enables tribal people to gain control over their own lives, communities, and natural resources. It involves expanding their capabilities to negotiate with and hold accountable the institutions that affect them. Empowerment functions as both a process—creating an enabling social, economic, and political environment—and a product, resulting in formal institutional representation. It aims to reverse centuries of marginalization by shifting power back to the tribals, allowing them to participate fully in decision-making, governance, and the management of their traditional resources (land, water, forest) to improve their overall quality of life.
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