2. Answer the following in 600 words each:
i) Write about any two tribes found in Tamil Nadu.
The state of Tamil Nadu is home to a diverse population of tribal communities, particularly concentrated in the district of Nilgiris. Two of the most prominent tribes found in this region are the Badagas and the Irulas.
The Badagas The Badagas form the largest group of tribes in the Tamil Nadu region. Technically, they belong to the backward class and are not officially classified as tribals, but they are an integral part of the region's indigenous agricultural community. The Badagas historically had a pastoral existence, with the men from each family heavily occupied in grazing and milking large herds of buffaloes. Today, they are deeply engaged in agricultural practices, particularly in tea cultivation and potato growing near the Nilgiris.
Culturally, the Badagas boast a very rich oral tradition filled with folktales, poetry, and songs. In terms of religion, there are differing accounts of their beliefs; while some early ethnographic observations note that they do not worship any specific God and possess a "cosmic" consciousness, they are also classified as Hindus belonging to the Shiva sect. They actively celebrate major Hindu festivals, including Diwali and the famous festival of Pongal. The Badagas live in specific settlements called Munds, which generally consist of five to six typical wagon-shaped, windowless huts made of split bamboo, reeds, and thatch. They are easily distinguished by their traditional costume, which features a thick white cotton cloth adorned with stripes in red, blue, or black—known as a puthukuli—worn over a waist cloth by both men and women. Linguistically, they speak a unique language known as Badaga (or Badugu), which is a mixture of the Tamil and Kannada languages. Over time, many Badagas have relocated to towns and cities, adopting an urban style of employment.
The Irulas The Irulas are the second largest tribal group in Tamil Nadu after the Badagas. The term Irula in Tamil translates to "dark" or "night". They primarily occupy the lower slopes and forests situated at the base of the Nilgiri hills. Traditionally, the Irula tribe is highly famous for snake catching and removing venom. Their extensive knowledge of the local flora and fauna means that they are frequently called upon whenever natives require medical or herbal assistance.
Historically, the Irulas were engaged as hunters and gatherers to earn their living. They produce and collect items such as honey, fruits, herbs, roots, gum, and dyes, which they actively trade with the people living in the plains. The Irulas are predominantly non-vegetarian and are known to trap field rats, rabbits, and porcupines. Their language, known as Irula (or by other names like Eravallan, Irular, or Urali), is a Dravidian language spoken across districts like Coimbatore, Salem, Nilgiri, and Periyar.
The Irula society is an endogamous group divided into several exogamous gotrams (clans) and kulams (lineages) to regulate marriage alliances. They practice consanguineous marriages, preferring unions with close kin like maternal uncle’s daughters. Irula women enjoy more freedom within their families compared to neighboring communities, taking part in economic and religious functions, though they still hold a secondary status to men. Today, they are gradually transitioning from their traditional hunting and gathering lifestyles to a more modern form of living, with many primarily engaging themselves in agricultural labor.
ii) What is the current scenario of tribes found in Bihar? Discuss.
The current scenario of the tribes in Bihar can be understood by examining their demographic profile, educational status, occupational distribution, and socio-religious conditions, largely based on the 2011 Census. Following the bifurcation of the state in 2000 to form Jharkhand, many tribal communities moved to the new state, significantly altering Bihar's tribal landscape. Currently, Bihar has 32 enumerated Scheduled Tribes, constituting about 1.28 per cent of the State's total population.
Demographic Profile and Sex Ratio The Scheduled Tribe (ST) population in Bihar is overwhelmingly rural, with 94.6 per cent dwelling in villages. Santal is the most populous tribe, accounting for 30.3 per cent of the total ST population, followed by Oraon, Kharwar, Gond, and Tharu. The sex ratio among the ST population in Bihar stands at 958 females per 1000 males, which is notably lower than the national ST average of 990. Interestingly, among the individual major tribes, the Santal, Oraon, and Gond possess a sex ratio above 900, while tribes like the Bathudi, Birjia, Bedia, Savar, and Khond fall below the 900 mark. However, the child sex ratio (0-6 years) is relatively better at 969, slightly surpassing the national average of 957.
Literacy and Educational Status The educational scenario for the tribes in Bihar has shown positive momentum, though it remains below national standards. The overall ST literacy rate increased from 28.2 per cent in 2001 to 51.1 per cent in 2011. Despite this growth, it lags behind the national ST average of 59.0 per cent. A significant gender disparity exists, with male literacy at 61.0 per cent compared to female literacy at only 40.4 per cent. Educational attainment remains quite low; about 37 per cent of ST literates either have no formal educational level or have dropped out below the primary level. Only 16.3 per cent of the literate tribal population are matriculates, and a mere 3.8 per cent are graduates or above.
Occupational Distribution (Work Participation Rate) Economically, the tribes in Bihar are heavily reliant on agriculture, mostly as laborers rather than landowners. ‘Agricultural Labourers’ constitute a staggering 79.20 per cent of the total tribal workers, a figure considerably higher than the national average of 59.70 per cent. Conversely, ‘Cultivators’ make up only 4.73 per cent of the tribal workforce, which is drastically lower than the national ST average of 44.7 per cent. Workers engaged in Household Industries (HHI) form 10.51 per cent of the workforce. Tribes like the Santal and Oraon have more than 60 per cent of their workers functioning as agricultural laborers.
Marital Status and Religion Regarding marital status, the data reveals that 'never married' individuals (52.32 per cent) outnumber 'married' persons (43.8 per cent) within the total ST population. Widowed individuals account for 3.65 per cent, while divorce or separation is negligible at 0.15 per cent. From a religious standpoint, Hinduism is the predominant religion, followed by 95.60 per cent of the state's tribal population. Christian tribes make up 2.43 per cent, Muslims form less than half a percent (0.8 per cent), and 0.81 per cent profess other religions and persuasions. Overall, the current scenario indicates a community that is deeply rural and agrarian, slowly making strides in literacy but still facing significant economic and educational hurdles.
2. Answer the following questions in 300 words each:
i) What do you understand about the cultural elements of tribals in Kerala? Explain.
The tribes of Kerala belong to the Dravidian family group and exhibit specific physical traits, including a dark complexion, short height, well-built bodies, and flat noses. Many of these tribes grow very long hair, which they traditionally tie into hair locks. Believed to be descendants of the Negrito race, they inhabit the mountainous and densely forested regions of Kerala. Because of the rugged and isolated topography of their settlements, these tribes have historically remained undisturbed by foreign invasions, allowing them to keep their originality and cultural ethnicity intact.
The cultural exuberance of Kerala's tribes is reflected heavily in their religious beliefs, housing, clothing, and festive traditions. Their religion is largely centered around Animism. They have a profound faith in spiritualism, worshipping nature and appeasing spirits to ward off calamities and sickness. They revere a plethora of local deities, with the worship of Amman (Goddess Kali) and Ayyan (Ayyappan) being very common. Almost all tribes unite in their reverence for Malleshwara, the great mountain peak of the area, which has recently been equated with Lord Shiva due to outside influences. Ancestral worship is also prevalent among a few tribes.
Tribal identity in Kerala is easily spotted through their distinct dress and body modifications. Women traditionally wrap a single piece of cloth around their bodies, tied just above the chest, and often pull their hair into a tuft on the left side of their heads. Tattoos are highly prevalent, particularly on the arms and heads of the women. Fairs and festivals are part and parcel of their culture; during festive seasons, the entire tribal population engages in enthusiastic dance, music, and widespread jubilation.
ii) Do you think the New Economic Policy has an effect on the tribals? Give reasons.
Yes, the New Economic Policy has a serious and highly adverse effect on the tribal populations. The core philosophy of the new economic policy involves the privatization and deregulation of industries and commerce, paving the way for a free market economy defined by keen competition. Under this policy, no new industrial undertakings are set up by the government in the public sector, and existing public undertakings are increasingly privatized and handed over to private entrepreneurs.
This structural shift drastically impacts the tribals due to the loss of affirmative action benefits. Currently, there is a minimum 7 percent job reservation for Scheduled Tribes (STs) in government and public undertakings. As industries are privatized, the total number of jobs available in the public sector sharply reduces, which in turn shrinks the employment quota specifically reserved for the STs.
Furthermore, while modern education policies have enabled many tribal children to pursue higher education, they still lack the competitive edge required to compete with students from more privileged communities in the merit-based private sector. Compounding this problem is the fact that tribals generally lack specialized trade skills—such as those inherited by Goldsmiths and Blacksmiths—meaning they cannot easily fall back on formal family businesses. Consequently, this policy threatens to cause large-scale unemployment and widespread frustration among tribal youth. Unless the government mandates private entrepreneurs to reserve quotas for STs or creates robust alternative arrangements, the new economic policy—despite its potential to bring welfare to the general community—will have a deeply detrimental impact on the vulnerable tribal populations.
iii) Briefly write about the atrocities that have been inflicted on the Jarawas.
The Jarawas of the Andaman Islands have historically been stereotyped as hostile and aggressive; however, their hostility has largely been a defensive reaction to severe atrocities and the encroachment of their resources by outsiders.
The atrocities began systematically during the British colonial period. During the second penal settlement established in 1858, the British adopted a 'Divide and Rule' policy that proved devastating for the Jarawas. The British provided firearms to a rival tribe, the Great Andamanese, inciting them against the Jarawas. In numerous punitive expeditions mounted by the British and armed coastal Andamanese, the Jarawa habitats were invariably attacked, damaged, and a large number of Jarawas were killed.
The violence continued during the Japanese occupation in World War II (1942-1945), when the Jarawa territory was subjected to indiscriminate bombing and firing, further damaging their habitat and deepening their hatred for outsiders.
Following India's independence, atrocities took the form of rapid territorial encroachment. The government implemented policies to colonize the islands, settling displaced persons from East Pakistan in areas adjacent to Jarawa territories. This relentless encroachment cleared their forests, depleted their food sources, and brought them into violent conflict with heavily armed settlers. The construction of the Andaman Trunk Road directly through the heart of their territory brought further devastation, introducing fatal diseases like measles and pneumonia to which the Jarawas had no immunity. Overall, the Jarawas have been pushed to the brink of extinction through territorial theft, introduced epidemics, and armed violence.
3. Answer the following in 150 words each:
i) Write briefly about the “Hakkipikki” tribes found in Karnataka. The Hakkipikki tribe in Karnataka is a semi-nomadic, Kshatriya (warrior) community distributed across Mysore, Kolar, Shimoga, and Hassan districts. Their name stems from their traditional occupation of bird catching; in Kannada, hakki means bird, and pikki is an echo-formation. Defeated by the Mughals historically, they speak an Indo-Aryan language called Vaghari at home and use Kannada with outsiders. The tribe is divided into four clans: Gujratia, Kaliwala, Mewara, and Panwara. They practice adult marriage, primarily monogamy, and have a system of bride price. The Hakkipikki exhibit strong matriarchal tendencies; women maintain the family when men are away, often traveling to sell beads and cosmetics. They practice Hinduism, heavily revering Goddess Chamundeshwari and "Dadaji" as their supreme God.
ii) Throw light on the religious festivals among the tribes in Lakshadweep The people of Lakshadweep profess Islam, mostly belonging to the Shafi School of the Sunni sect, and observe all major Islamic festivals. Id-ul-Fitr (locally known as Cheriya Perunnal) is celebrated on the first of Shawwal to mark the end of the Ramzan fast. It is a day of feasting where maulood is conducted in the Prophet's name. Id-ul-Zuha (Bakrid) is celebrated on the tenth day of Dulhaj to commemorate Prophet Ibrahim’s surrender to God; it involves prayers, the sacrifice of cows and goats, and the distribution of meat among neighbors. Moharram is less prominent, celebrated primarily by well-to-do families on the tenth day of the Islamic calendar's first month. They also observe festivities dedicated to religious preceptors like Sheikh Mohiddin and Sheikh Raffai.
iii) What do you know about the social organization of the Shompens? The social organization of the Shompens of Great Nicobar is based on tradition, kinship, and locality. They lack a class system and are divided into small bands of men, women, and children related through blood or marriage. The nuclear family is the central social unit, consisting of a husband, wife, and unmarried children, and is governed by the eldest male member. Husband-wife dynamics are highly informal. The community is divided into two sub-divisions: the hostile Shompens who live in the deep interior, and the Mawa Shompens who live near the coast and are relatively tame. Each band is guided by a recognized headman—selected for his intelligence and knowledge—who directs daily hunting and gathering activities and protects the band from outsiders.
iv) Discuss the occupational distribution among the Sentinelese. The Sentinelese of the Andaman Islands are strictly a hunting and gathering community with no knowledge of agriculture. Their economy is heavily dependent on sea resources. Men primarily engage in hunting wild boars and sea turtles, and fishing using bows, arrows, spears, and single out-rigger canoes. Women engage in fishing using small round nets in shallow coastal waters. Both men and women participate actively in gathering edible roots, tubers, fruits, and molluscs from the forest. In terms of crafting, women are responsible for making baskets, mats, and the narrow bark waist-belts worn by men. Their weapons and tools are traditionally crafted from stone, animal bones, and salvaged metal washed ashore.
v) Write about the ‘Khond’ tribes of Bihar. The Khond tribes, originally migrating from Orissa, reside in regions like Jharkhand, Singbhum, and Hazaribagh. Belonging to the Proto-australoid race, they speak 'Kuvi', a Dravidian language from the Astro-Asiatic family. The tribe is primarily divided into the Kutia Khonds (hill dwellers retaining primitive customs) and plain-dwelling Khonds (who have acquired Hindu customs). Traditionally despising all occupations except husbandry, hunting, and war, they worship nature and deities like Dharni Deota (earth God) and Sing Bonga. Historically, they practiced gruesome human sacrifices to appease the Earth Goddess, a practice abolished in 1845 and replaced with animal offerings. They celebrate major agricultural festivals like the Semi Jatra and Dasahra (Chawal Dhuba).
vi) Briefly write about the tribes found in Goa. The tribes of Goa are the original settlers of the Konkan region, having inhabited the area long before Aryan or Dravidian invasions. The major tribe is the Gowdas, alongside others like the Kunbis, Velips, and Dhangars. They reside in segregated interior villages and maintain distinct, logical lifestyles, customs, and religious beliefs immune to modern technological shifts. Gowda women enjoy active economic roles and unique inheritance rights. Predominantly Hindus worshipping Malikkarjun (Lord Shiva), they uniquely practice burying their dead rather than cremating them. Following forced conversions to Christianity by the Portuguese in 1620, the Gowdas split into three strict endogamous groups that continue to practice cross-cousin marriages.
Would you like me to elaborate on any specific tribal culture or their modern developmental challenges?
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